Majid Khaleghian

There are so many legends about Khosrow I (Anushirvan) that conducting serious historical research on him becomes difficult, and it is hard to reach a definitive conclusion about his historical character. In any case, it seems that these narratives and literary legacies were not solely inspired by one individual, but rather by an entire era—a distinguished period during which culture and civilization in the Sasanian Empire reached their peak.

Darius the Great was one of the kings of the Achaemenid dynasty who came to the throne in 522 BCE. He is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Persian history. To manage the vast Achaemenid Empire and collect taxes, Darius established a well-organized and efficient administrative system that was unprecedented at the time. The construction of major roads, a swift courier system, minting of a gold coin known as the Daric, and the building of grand palaces in Persepolis, Susa, and Ecbatana are among the remarkable achievements of this statesman king (See: Sami, 2013 [1392 AHS], vol. 2, p. 264)

The Book of Esther tells the story of a woman named Esther who risks her life to save the Jewish people from genocide, ultimately leading to the Jews slaughtering their enemies. This tale, however, lacks historical validity and sharply contradicts known historical sources. The Book of Esther is notably absent from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Additionally, distorted versions of the story are prevalent in Iran that diverge from Jewish sources and lack any credible foundation.

According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, the king of Media marched against Cyrus, but the Median army rebelled against their own king and handed him over to Cyrus. The day the Median army joined Cyrus’s popular uprising and ended Astyages’ tyranny, peace and justice were restored to the Iranian realm.

Nowruz marks the mythical day when Jamshid defeated evil and saved creation—symbolizing harmony between humans and the creator (Ahura Mazda) in ancient Iranian thought. Humans are not portrayed as inherently sinful beings deserving of punishment. Instead, humanity and the creator are seen as allies who protect the world of existence together.

In several of his verses, Hafez honors Adam and Eve, seeing their defiance not as disgrace, but as a dignified, even sacred, act. Had Adam and Eve remained in paradise, humanity would never have known its vast achievements. There would have been no thought, no art, no will, no poetry. We would have been creatures circling endlessly in an eternal garden, avoiding a forbidden tree.

First and foremost, it must be noted that the entire vastness of Cyrus’s empire did not result solely from his own conquests. Cyrus managed to bring the large territory of Media under his rule without a significant war. Cyrus’s other conquests were also motivated by threats from foreign powers or alliances formed against him.

Considering the evidence, we can conclude that not only do diverse historical sources from different cultures confirm the Cyrus Cylinder, but contemporary archaeological artifacts related to everyday life also support its claims.

Gōsāns were artists who narrated stories through poetry and music in the streets and neighborhoods. They served as guardians of Iran’s epic tales and passed them down to the Sasanian era. The Gōsāns’ tradition of recounting epic narratives was a rich one—especially among the storytellers of Khorasan, who benefited from both the cultural diversity and religious freedoms of the Kushan and Parthian periods in the East.